IV. Conclusion

There is good potential for growth in the local and export kava market. However, the future growth and development of the kava industry needs attention in the areas of production, research and marketing.

Production research

It is often debated which is more important: markets or production? It would appear that further market opportunities are constrained by production, as the large domestic market restricts the amount available for export.

Kava needs attention as a commercial crop. Effective cropping systems adapted to the local conditions need to be developed for smallholders as well as for large-scale plantations.

Organic kava production systems need further study because of the high value niche market for organic products.

There are also major bottlenecks and needs for agronomic research:

· Establishment of national germplasm collections needed.

· Selection of kava varieties of the best chemotype and kavalactone content. Hawaii has undertaken this and only good chemotypes are promoted for production.

· Development of reliable tissue culture techniques and micropropagation systems for virus-free planting material. Hawai'i has made progress in this area but the survival rate of plants from tissue culture is still only 50%

· Identification, prevention and control of existing kava pests and diseases, including dieback, and a comprehensive study of the epidemiology.

· Determining the suitability of kava monocropping by smallholders in the Pacific.

· Kava fertility management for maximum production and sustainability.

Processing research

Further research into appropriate processing techniques for the smallholder and for large-scale production is necessary. Appropriate equipment and packaging techniques are also needed. Among the different processing techniques to be studied, priority should be given to the improvement and development of spray drying techniques, ultra-high temperature treatment, and identifying the ideal combination of organic solvents for the treatment of residues from domestic consumption. National Kava Councils should be established to encourage intiative and coordinate development of the industry.

Facilitation of marketing activities

Inconsistent supply and poor quality of kava inhibit market development and destabilise prices. The kava industry needs to establish kava quality specifications.

National or regional names should be developed and protected to symbolise quality kava from original sources and to protect it from competition from other tropical countries.

Organic certification

A valuable niche market with potential for Pacific Islands kava producers is the organic market. Much of the kava grown in the Pacifi is grown without the use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers. An organic certification system for kava is needed to verify the organic production methods used for the growth of the industry.

Working group of Kava Industry leaders at Regional Kava in meeting, 1998.

Appendix A

Hawaiian kava production

Deep soil

These lands, formerly used for sugar or pineapple, are often depleted of nutrients. These soils are deep-ploughed and rotor tilled with compost and /or manure. Calcium and other minerals may be added depending on the soil analysis. The field are then formed into ridges that are as much as 150 cm (5 ft) wide and 75­100 cm (2°­3 ft) high to promote good drainage.

Rocky soil

These soils are often not very deep but ridges are still made in the field. The same procedure as above is followed, with no deep ploughing because of the often shallow soils.

Forested and rocky with limited soil

The trees are left growing on this land. Kava is grown among and under the trees on mounds of cinder, soil, compost and fertiliser mix.

On 11 May 1998 the Association for Hawaiian Awa (AHA) was formed as a non-profit organisation for reserach, education, and preservation of the cultural and medical values associated with the awa (kava) plant.

Hawai'i has a long tradition of growing and consuming kava that is now being revived. Hawaiian kava growers are applying modern production and propagation technologies to kava. Gowers in other Pacific Islands may be interested in the technical information, which provides a much different approach to kava production. If you are interested in experimenting based on the following information, please do so on a small scale and with caution.

Different soils

There are five basic production systems in Hawai'i, depending on the type of land where the kava is planted.

Jerry Konanui in a kava plot that will be used for cuttings.

Rocky with very little or no soil

These lands, where papaya or anthurium may have been grown before fertility depletion or the disease of ring spot virus on papaya or anthurium blight, are cleared of weeds. The kava is grown in mounds of a mixture of cinder, soil, and compost with fertiliser added.

Basket system

The weed mat basket method, though not extensively used, is attractive for smaller farmers including backyard kava growers. This method consists of wire baskets varying from 75 cm (2° ft) to 130 cm (4 ft) tall made from welded steel wire, hog wire, or wire mesh used for concrete reinforcement. The open wire baskets are lined with weed mats and filled with a mix of cinder, soil, compost and fertiliser. The savings in labour costs and maintenance time, ease of pest and disease control, and the ease of harvesting make this an attractive alternative for small growers wanting to supplement their income.

Kava planted in a large basket.

Fertility management

Many different methods of fertility management are are used, includeing both organic and non-organic approaches. There is very little documented data on kava nutrient requirements. Farmers are experimenting with a wide range of fertiliser application methods such as pre-plant, side dressing and foliar application. The timing of fertiliser application is also an area of experimentation. Ginger farmers use their usual method with some variations. Taro growers are also using their knowledge and experiences in formulating their own adaptation of fertility management.

Here are two examples:

Monthly application of NPK of different formulations:

14-14-14 time release (1­3 months)

14-14-14 commercial (3 months­1 year)

16-16-16 commercial (1­2 years)

10-20-20 commercial (After 2 years)

Monthly application of NPK of these formulations in rotation:

14-14-14

10-20-20

14-14-14 or 16-16-16

Fertiliser rates

A small handful of NPK is spread around and over the mound for small plants. A handful for 30 cm (1 ft) tall plants is well broadcast around the plant and two to four handfuls of NPK are applied for plants over 120 cm (4 ft) tall. It is important not to throw handfuls of NPK into piles on the mounds, as it will burn your plant. It is better to have more frequent light applications of fertiliser than less frequent heavy applications.

Height and Yield of Kava

A three year old plant can yield from 8 to 17 kg of green kava. One organic farmer got 16 kg in twelve months; his fertiliser application is not known. The plant height at harvest depends to a great extent on the variety. Plants with short nodes can reach a height of only 1.2 to 1.8m (4 to 6 ft). Plants with long internodes can reach a height of 3.5 to 5 m (12 to 16° ft) in the shade, or a bit shorter in direct sunlight.

Weed management

Especially during the period just after transplanting, weeds are a major problem. Farmers transplant large plants from the nursery to help beat the weeds' growth rate. Mulches of cinders, grass clippings, shade tree chips and trimmings, weed mats, and rows of shade and nitrogen fixing windbreaks help keep the weeds down until the kava canopy can provide its own weed control.

In some areas with no irrigation, farmers allow a ground cover of weeds to grow, claiming that this helps maintain moisture during the hot summer months.

Herbicides are not approved for use in kava cultivation. The drift or wind carry of Roundup, a systemic herbicide, from road maintenance on non-organic farms can have devastating effects on kava.

Irrigation

Irrigation is a real bonus for those fortunate enough to have it. To get better irrigation coverage, an emitter style head is recommended rather than a drip head.

Farmers who have to rely on rainfall need ways to ensure that the kava plants will have enough moisture throughout the year, especially during the hot summer months.

In high rainfall areas, large, well-drained, high mounds or ridges with a high proportion of moisture-holding materials can help provide the right drainage.

For drier and windy areas, shade-providing, nitrogen-fixing windbreaks are very helpful in preventing the kava from drying out. Nitrogen-fixing windbreak species include Casuarina equisetifolia, Calliandra calothyrsus, Gliricidia sepium, and Leucaena leucocephala. Ask forestry or agriculture extension agents for the best trees for windbreaks for your area. In this situation, rocky mounds and hills aid in retaining moisture, so leave the rocks in. Mulch, weed mats, black plastic mulch, and cover crops also help to retain moisture.

Irrigation in a field of young kava plants.

Spacing and shading

Spacing

The initial frenzy of kava planting brought spacing as close as 60 cm (2 ft) between plants within the rows and 120 cm (4 ft) between rows. Experience has now shown that this spacing was too close. Now 180 cm by 180 cm (6 ft by 6 ft) or 240 cm by 240 cm (8 ft by 8 ft) is the recommended spacing.

Shading

Planting out acclimatised young plants calls for shade or at least partial shade. Planting kava between rows of pigeon pea or nitrogen-fixing windbreak trees seems to work well. After one year, or when the kava plants allow it, the shade trees are pruned and chipped on site and added to the top of the mounds or ridges as mulch or later as compost.

Rows of kava plants properly spaced and shaded by windbreak trees.

Pruning

Due to the urgent need for planting material kava crops were pruned drastically. It was then noted that a healthy kava plant can handle drastic pruning twice a year without adverse effect. On the contrary, the plants seem able to not only to recover but to increase in size: more shoots come out; more roots develop from these shoots, the rootstock increases because there are more branches developing. About 10­30% of the stems are removed once or twice a year, depending on how the plants are growing. The woody stem closer to the ground branches is removed, leaving the softer and more succulent stems.

It is believed that Hawaiian ancestors were right when they said that the Awa Kau Laau,

a variety of Hawaiian kava, famous for its strength, which grew in the crotch of trees in the district of Puna, Hawai'i, was strong because the roots coming down the tree were exposed to the sunlight. I feel that pruning is an extension of that idea. It opens up the canopy of the plant and lets the sunlight penetrate to the base of the plant. Testing done on Hawaiian kava in 1998 also supports this.

Advantages of pruning

1) Pruning provides planting material.

2) It promotes an increase in rootstock size.

3) It enhances production of kavalactones.

Fast propagation method

A major constraint to expanding kava production in Hawa'i is lack of planting materials. There has been a high degree of innovation to get large amounts of vigorous planting material from a small number of plants in a short period of time. In the tipping and pinching approach, the buds are stimulated to grow into shoots while they are still on the plant rather than after planting, with the result that you can have much faster growing plants once they are put in the ground.

Kava stem (primary branch) before tipping.

1. Plant preparation (before taking cuttings)

A. Fertilise plants one or two weeks before tipping.

B. Tipping ­ the removal of the primary branch tip:

(i) Tip only hard, woody branches (if your thumbnail can penetrate the stem or node, it is too soft).

(ii) The purpose of tipping is to accelerate the growth of the axillary buds into shoots.

(iii) Use only nodes from primary branches. Material from secondary branches will develop into plants with horizontal growth characteristics.

Pinching removing the upper portion of axillary bud to stimulate the development of more buds.

C. Pinching the removal of the upper portion of the axillary bud, leaving the base of the node. The purpose of pinching is to prevent damage to the sprouted bud (breaking off of the node). In addition, the pinching stimulates three to four eyes to come out of the base of the axillary bud. This gives you three to four stems from one plant rather than a one-stem plant.

(i) Pinching should be done when axillary shoots are at least 2.5 cm (1 in). The larger the shoots the better.

Buds (eyes) developing because of pinching.

2. Removing nodes from the stem

A. Cutting individual nodes

(i) Cut with sharp clippers/loppers or a clean cutting saw.

(ii) Cut close to node.

(iii) Place cutting into plastic bucket; damp sphagnum moss is helpful to keep the cutting moist.

(iv) Don't place the bucket in sun or subject it to heat.

(v) Upon completion immediately transport to nursery.

After the top node is removed from the stem, the next node is allowed to sprout and be pinched. This process can continue down the stem. Always leave one node at the bottom of the stem to prevent potential entry of fungi that can cause rotting of the rootstock.

C. Soak tray of nodes in a marinade of seaweed extract and high phosphate foliar mix (optional).

(i) Soak for five minutes.

(ii) Remove tray from marinade and let drain and dry.

(iii) Paint freshly cut node ends with pruning paint (optional).

D. Place tray on a bench in a mist chamber so that the nodes are kept moist.

(i) Keep in 60% to 80% shade.

(ii) Every day:

a. Check for drop-off (stubs from secondary cut branch)

b. Check for and remove rotten nodes

c. Hose down the nodes to keep them clean

d. Watch for rooting and when roots appear put the node in a pot of media (see page 50).

(iii) Weekly: spray or soak in high phosphate foliar seaweed extract (optional).

Sprouted node ready to be cut near the node.

3. Preparing Nodes in the Nursery

A. Lay nodes in trays with pinched axillary buds facing up.

B. Dip the tray of nodes in a marinade of fungicide and bactericide to prevent rot (optional but highly recommended).

(i) The length of time to soak the tray depends on the type and strength of fungicide and bactericide used but a few mintues is usually sufficient.

(ii) After soaking, rinse with fresh clean water to prevent burn damage to soft/small buds and shoots.

(iii) Let water drain off until dry.

Nodes in trays with buds facing up.

Node with shoots facing up.

4. Potting rooted nodes

A. Use a 4 litre pot or bag.

This is so that you can keep the plant in the same container until transplanting. Smaller pots can be used but transferring to a larger pot will be necessary before transplanting to the field. Using a 4 litre pot also means the plant can be grown even if transplanting is delayed.

B. Media (use sterile media where possible)

(i) 80% cinder/perlite, 20% compost (preferred).

(ii) 100% cinder/perlite (2nd choice).

(iii) Drip or mist irrigation is recommended though watering daily is acceptable once the plants are well established.

C. Start with 60­80% shade in the nursery. Just before transplanting, gradually increase exposure first to 60­70% for a week and then to 30% shade for a week.

D. Fertiliser application can be done in several ways.

(i) Slow release (balanced with minerals) as per directions.

(ii) Foliar spray/soak every other week.

(iii) Manure tea or in the potting mix.

(iv) High phosphate seaweed extract as per instructions.

E. The size of the plant at transplanting depends on field conditions (small plants are under 30 cm (12 in), large plants are over 30 cm).

(i) Shaded conditions for small plants and unshaded conditions for large plants.

(ii) Weedy conditions require large plants; small plants need weed-free conditions.

(iii) If pests (insects, slugs and snails) are present, plant large plants; if field is pest-free you can plant small plants.

Nodes after planting in pots.

Hawaiian Pacific Kava Company nursery in Hilo, Hawai'i.

Small backyard kava nursery in Hilo Hawai'i with owner Ed Johnston

Organic kava production

Jim Henderson of Pu'u O Hoku Ranch in Kaunakakai, Hawai'i, has taken an organic approach to growing kava. Hawaiian soils are low in phosphorous and the pH levels were all well below 6. Much of the fertilisation is based upon what is known of other plants' needs. What kava needs for high kavalactone content and vigorous growth is relatively unknown. It does seem to be a heavy feeder and therefore foliar fertilising is necessary to keep the nitrogen at a high level for maximum growth. So far, the plants are looking quite vigorous, on the whole. There is no yield data yet because the oldest plants are only 16 months old.

• 1. Soil evaluation: soil nutrient levels vary greatly. A soil test is important to know what to add to the soil. Based on the soil analysis Jim has developed a soil fertility management plan.
• 2. Preplant application of one tonne/hectare of calcium (oyster shell lime) and one tonne/hectare of phosphorous (soft rock phosphate).
• 3. When possible he plants the field with either Sudan grass or crotalaria before it is prepared for planting kava. Both are known to kill nematodes. Crotalaria is a legume that fixes nitrogen thereby adding soil nutrients. Crotalaria can and should be inoculated with rhizobium bacteria for maximum nitrogen production. There are also other good tropical cover crops that can be used. This crop is allowed to grow to crowd out the weeds and enrich the soil. It is then cut and plowed into the soil.

• 4. The kava is grown on raised beds 30 cm (12 in) tall and 1.8 m (6 ft) across that are made with a tractor and a ridging attachment. The threemonthold kava seedlings are planted 1.6 m (5 ft) apart in the row. At planting Jim adds 450 g each of lime, phosphorous, Norwegian kelp (algit), fish or blood meal, and diatomaceous earth. Compost is added at a rate of 28 kg per bed of 65 m. A mulch cover of chipped trees is overlaid on beds to a depth of 10cm (4 in).
• 5. There are windbreaks every 150 m (500ft) and rows of pigeon pea, gliricidia and sesbania at closer intervals. Shading is not considered necessary.
• 6. There is not much pruning of the kava. Exceptions are for propagation and culling out poor stems at fertilisation and weeding.
• 7. A foliar fertiliser spraying schedule begins after planting, using Maxicrop (commercial brand) foliar fertiliser and Mermaids (commercial brand) fish powder, applied with a small tractor and sprayer at a rate of 9 kg of formulation per 400 litres of water per 0.45 hectare. This is ideally done every three weeks. The process can be improved upon with the use of spreader stickers (yucca extract) and oxygen and pH modifiers (hydrogen peroxide or vinegar).
• 8. At six months of age the kava is side dressed with 500 kg phosphorus, 500 kg lime and 125 kg blood meal per hectare. At 1­1° years we side dress with 500 kg algit and 500 kg fishmeal (potassium and nitrogen) per hectare.

Appendix B

False kava

a threat to the South Pacific kava industry

The development of the kava industry has brought with it new producers and buyers. In the rush to produce and sell kava, a problem has appeared in the form of false kava. The false kava is sold to unsuspecting buyers here in the Pacific or shipped directly to overseas buyers, usually mixed in with true kava. The result is that the shipment will be rejected when the kavalactone content is tested.

False kava is a threat to quality kava produced in the region. It gives kava producers and exporters a bad name in the international kava market.

In Samoa and Fiji Islands false kava is referred to as 'Tongan kava' or 'yaqona ni onolulu', and in Tonga 'Hawaiian kava'. What are these other kinds of kava? The scientific name of kava is Piper methysticum. False kavas are other species within the Piper genus but they do not contain kavalactones.

Piper aduncum. This species is a tree up to 5­6m (15­20 ft) tall with leaves up to 15cm (6 in) long and flowers borne on cream coloured drooping spikes about 12 cm (5 in) long. The leaves are bigger and lighter green than kava. This species apparently was introduced in the 1920s and now is a widespread weed in the wet and intermediate zones of Viti Levu, Fiji Islands.

Piper auritum. This species causes the most confusion in Hawai'i. The distinguishing characteristic are:

Vein pattern: there is a central vein with smaller veins branching off it. This contrasts with the distinctive vein pattern of kava, which has 9 to 13 veins all spreading from the base of the leaf.

Smell: crushed leaves smell strongly of safrole (similar to sassafras or root beer). Safrole found in the leaves and stems is considered a carcinogen by the FDA.

Piper spp. There are other members of the Piper genus, such as Piper wichmannii in Vanuatu, that may be confused with kava. If you are an experienced kava producer you will notice the differences on close examination of the plant: leaves, stem, flowers, and plant form. If the plant is already dried, the roots will not have the characteristic smell of kava and will sometimes be a different colour. The roots are more woody and contain less starch, and are not slender and flexible.

These other members of the Piper genus are widespread in the Pacific and they do not contain kavalactones.

Do not let the false kava destroy the reputation of kava from the Pacific.

False kava leaf

(Piper auritum)

Kava leaf.

False kava being removed in Fiji Islands.

(Piper aduncum)

False kava.

Bibliography

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Kava drying shed in Vanuatu.

Glossary

Adulteration is the term used when the product for sale has other foreign material mixed with it so that it doesn't conform to the specification agreed on, e.g., the kava is dirty; is mixed with false kava, or has other plant materials mixed in.

Adventitious roots roots which develop spontaneously from the stem when it is placed in a moist environment. In the case of kava these roots develop quite easily. In other species it can be quite difficult for the roots to develop.

Bacterium very small (microscopic) organisms that can cause diseases in plants.

Basal stem the stem, 20 cm (8 in) above the rootstock.

Bud scar small rough scar on the nodes (stem joints) where shoots will emerge when the conditions are right.

Competition plant and root competition occurs when two or more compete with one another for light, water, nutrients etc. One plant may grow well and the other dies or grows sickly.

Compost a mixture of dried plant material, animal manure and other organic materials such as sea weed or saw dust that is combined and goes though a microbiological breakdown that turns it into a compound that looks like soil. It is then used to fertilise the soil.

Cortical layer the part between the bark (epidermis) and the central core of the stem.

Cover crop a crop, often of the legume family, planted to fully cover the soil between stands of trees and between other crops. Cover crops are useful because they protect and also enrich the soil. Yams and sweet potatoes are often used as a cover crop.

Crop rotation refers to planting a sequence of different crops on a plot of land. The practice help maintain soil fertility and break the life cycle of many pests and diseases that may only survive on one crop and thereby reduce pest and disease attack.
Cropping system pattern of growing crops over time as well as the mixture of plants grown together at the same time.

Cultivar any variety and selected plant that is produced or grown by farmers and is not found naturally in the wild.

Cultivation shallow digging of the soil to allow water to soak into the soil and also to remove weeds.

Cutting plant stem cut into pieces and planted to start a new plant.

Dieback a disease in which a plant starts to die from the ends of its branches. See kava dieback.

Direct planting making a hole and planting a cutting without first growing the seedlings in a nursery.

Disease any condition that is not normal in a plant. Diseases usually produce signs and symptoms.

Epidemiology the study of diseases.
Extraneous matter any material which is not in the specification, e.g. foreign matter dirt, stones, false kava, etc.

Farming system different methods used to grow crops, including shifting cultivation, continuous cropping, mixed cropping, monocropping etc.

Foliar fertiliser a fertiliser which is applied to the leaves of a plant.

Genetic vulnerability A species of plant such as kava that has only a limited number of cultivars which means that it has a narrow genetic base and limited variability. These plants are generally more susceptible to environmental stress, pest, and diseases.

Germinating the first stages in growth of a cutting or seed.

Green kava/ not dried.

green weight

Intercropping planting together more than one type of crop, in lines and with a definite spacing.

Internode space between two nodes.

Lateral branches side branches.

Maceration breaking up the kava plant bits to release the chemicals or kavalactones.

Markets domestic/local: within a community, district or country.

export: outside the country where the kava was grown.

nutriceutical: health food, nutritional and diet supplements.

pharmaceutical: medicines and drugs.

Mealy bugs Small insects of not more than 5 mm in length that suck the juice from plants. Usually on the underside of leaves. Mealy bugs get their name from the white material that covers their bodies as protection and comes off when touched. Mealy bugs produce honeydew that is visible as black stain on the leaves.

Micro-organism any organism that can only be seen with a microscope. Bacteria, viruses and fungi are all microorganisms.

Mixed cropping method of planting crops in which more than one type of crop is planted in the same garden, at the same time, without any definite spacing and without any rows or lines.

Moisture soil moisture is the medium in which plant food is carried from the soil into the plant.

Monocropping planting only one crop throughout the plantation.

Mulch dried leaves and grasses placed around the base of a plant to reduce water loss, control weeds and add plant food to the soil. Plastic mulch does all of this except add plant food to the soil.

Multicrop garden growing several different plants in the same garden.

Mutation is a change in the hereditary materials of a plant. Mutations may happen spontaneously or because of specific factors in the environment.

Nitrogen-fixing legume a legume which can change the free element nitrogen in the soil to plant food substances called nitrates. Examples are peanuts, pigeon pea, and mucuna.

Node point of a stem from which stems or leaves grows. The internode is the part between the nodes.

Nursery place where cuttings or seeds are planted and tended to grow into young plants.

Nutrient element or other substance that can be used as a source of plant food. Some nutrients can move in water. The water in the soil transports the nutrient to the plant. Other nutrients are not mobile in the soil and when the soil is exhausted the plant needs to grow more roots to reach the nutrients in fertile soil, or the farmer needs to fertilise the soil with mulch and animal manure.

Organic matter decomposed material from living or once living things.

Organic farming/ growing crops with the use of compost, manure and other natural plant

organic production food, and without the use of any chemical pesticides or man-made plant food.

Physiological effect the effect on the body's normal functions.

Potting soil a special blend of organic matter and soil which is prepared for nursery and potted planting.

Pathogen any living thing that can cause disease, e.g. bacteria, fungi, viruses, parasites.

Propagate to increase the number of plants by natural means, e.g. cuttings or seeds.

Relative humidity the moisture in the air at any temperature compared to the maximum amount of moisture the air can contain at that temperature high levels of relative humidity are favorable for the the outbreak and spread of plant disease. High relative humidity is unfavorable for storage of kava.

Representative sample a small sample of a larger quantity of kava product that is obtained in such a way that it will provide an accurate sample of the larger quantity for analysis.

Ridging mounding up soil around the plants either individually or in a long continuous seedbed or plantbed.

Rot the plant or plant material is attacked by micro-organisms and is decomposed.

Rotation see crop rotation.

Scale insects Small insects of not more than 5 mm in length that suck the juice from plants. Usually on the underside of leaves. They get their name from the round shell that covers their bodies as protection and looks similar to scales on fish. Scales produce honeydew that is visible as black stain on the leaves.

Shade protection from the sun. Kava needs shade if the roots and young plants are to grow quickly and easily.

Shade cloth manufactured cloth designed in several different thicknesses, used to shield nursery plants from exposure to too much sun.

Seedling a young plant grown from a cutting or from seed.

Soil fertility ability of the soil to provide essential nutrients in the correct amounts and proportions for plant growth.

Sterile does not produce seeds that will grow. Kava plants are sterile.

Stress when a plant suffers stress it does not grow well or easily. Stress can be due to a variety of causes, including lack of moisture or lack of nutrients in the soil.

Systemic herbicide a chemical which will kill the plant by being absorbed by the plant and transported through the plant's own systems.

Transplant to transfer a young plant from where it was first grown and looked after, to a permanent place in the garden.

Variety is a grouping below the species (Piper methysticum). A type of kava differs from other types e.g. Vanuatu variety and Papua New Guinea variety.

Vegetative propagation propagation by planting part of the plant and not by seed. Each generation is identical to the parent. The danger is that the plants are genetically vulnerable.

Vigorous strong and healthy.

Virus small infectious agent that causes disease that passes on from one sick plant to a healthy one. Insects sometimes pass the virus from infected plants to healthy plants. A virus can produce a variety of symptoms in a plant and reduce yield. Diseases caused by viruses are difficult to control. The disease kava dieback is thought to be caused by the cucumber mosaic virus (CMV).